What is the life expectancy of a ceramic filter?

Untreated water found in a natural environment

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Raw water is water found in the environment that has not been treated and does not have any of its minerals, ions, particles, bacteria, or parasites removed. Raw water includes rainwater, ground water, water from infiltration wells, and water from bodies like lakes and rivers.

Raw water is generally unsafe for human consumption due to the presence of contaminants. A major health problem in some developing countries is use of raw water for drinking and cooking.[1]

Without treatment, raw water can be used for irrigation, construction, or cleaning purposes.[2] Farmers use it for watering their crops and give it to livestock to drink, storing it in man-made lakes or reservoirs for long periods of time. Construction industries can use raw water for making cement or for damping down unsealed roads to prevent dust rising. Raw water can also be used for flushing toilets and washing cars, as well as any other purposes that do not require it to be consumed by humans. Water in this form is considered raw, as opposed to water which has been treated before consumption, such as drinking water or water which has been used in an industrial process, such as waste water.

Raw water flushing is a method of water conservation where raw water is used for flush toilets.

Composition

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The composition of raw water is naturally variable, but commonly contains one or more of the following significant contaminants, in the form of dissolved ions, particles and living organisms:[3]

• Humic acid and other complex acids, produced by plant decay. These occur in peat and soil and may cause discoloration and metallic taste of water.
• Minerals which make water hard. Most common are carbonates of calcium and magnesium.
• Particles of clay and silt.
• Pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa and their cysts. (waterborne diseases)
• Salt, which makes water brackish, having more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater.

Other, less common, contaminants of raw water include:

These contaminants can be harmful to humans if they drink raw water containing them, or if the water is not treated properly before consumption. The contaminants can also have an effect on the local ecosystem. For example, endocrine disrupting chemicals can have harmful effects on fish populations living in natural lakes and rivers.[7] These growing health concerns have led to the development of guidelines, such HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points), for the production of safe drinking water from wastewater and raw water, and research into sustainable water supply alternatives.[8][9]

Treatment

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Water treatment plant of Bragança, Portugal

Raw water can be used for many purposes, such as cooling water, water for rinsing and chemical production, purified water, and drinking water.[10] However, due to the possible contaminants, raw water must be treated before it is allowed for human consumption or industrial use.[11] There are several steps involved in the treatment of raw water, and different methods in which it can take place.

Reverse osmosis

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Reverse osmosis has been used for the production of demineralised water for over 30 years.[10] In reverse osmosis, water is transported across a membrane under high pressure, leaving a product that consists mainly of water and a concentrate containing most other components such as minerals and unwanted residues.[12] Many contaminants, including iron, manganese, ammonium, traces of pesticides and medicines, organic micro pollutants, and radioactive particles can be removed with reverse osmosis alone.[4][12] This efficiency has made reverse osmosis the primary method of water purification, often being used in combination with other methods, as a final treatment. A downside to reverse osmosis is that the removing of most minerals from water can have negative effects on its taste.[12] Minerals are sometimes added to drinking water that was already filtered to improve its taste.

Conventional pre-treatment

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The conventional treatment method for water purification is a complex, multistage process that was used for many years.[10] It generally consists of five primary steps.[11] First, raw water is adjusted for alkalinity and pH with the addition of hydrated lime and carbon dioxide. Second, particulate matter is congregated with aluminum sulphate and other coagulants, such as polymers, which the water flows in a cascade that mixes the chemicals and raw water with the coagulants. Third, the water is slowly mixed in clarifiers where larger particles settle down to the bottom and are periodically removed (sedimentation). Fourth, water is directed from the clarifiers to the filters (e.g. anthracite and sand filter) to entrap any smaller particles that survived the clarification process. Finally, sodium hydroxide is added to adjust the final pH/alkalinity, sodium hypochlorite for disinfection and fluoride for fluoridation. This process is often used as a pre-treatment method while another processes, such as reverse osmosis, is used for the final treatment.[10] A disadvantage of this method is its use of chemicals, such as ozone, flocculents, hydrogen peroxide, lime, and chlorine for the filtration process.[10] These chemicals could be dangerous if used incorrectly or if they remained in the water after complete treatment. This requires special precautions, and each step of the process has to be controlled to achieve an overall optimal performance.[10] The need for a complex control system for conventional treatment can result in it being financially costly.[10] This has led to the development of alternative pre-treatment and treatment methods for raw water.

Ultrafiltration

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Drinking water treatment of 300 m3/h using ultrafiltration in Grundmühle waterworks (Germany)

Ultrafiltration is a membrane filtration process and provides an alternative to conventional pre-treatment.[10] In this method water is only pre-filtered with a common screen filter before being filtered at high pressure through a membrane, separating the water from contaminants within it. Ultrafiltration can be used on its own for water purification or as a pre-treatment for reverse osmosis. Its advantages over conventional pre-treatment include: very high water quality independent of the contaminants in the initial raw water, a plant that is simpler in design and more flexible, which makes it easier to automate, lower use of chemicals, and final product free of viruses and microorganisms.

Biofilm pre-treatment and Bio-diatomite Dynamic Membrane Reactor

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The biofilm membrane filtration method is used to remove harmful chemical by-products, such as NH4+-N, total nitrogen, and dissolved organic matter, that could form from disinfection processes.[13] Biofilm Pre-treatment is a necessary step for water treatment in many parts of world due to its low operation cost and effectiveness at pollutant removal. In this process microorganisms remove contaminants in raw and wastewater that are harmful to humans, but nutrients to them.[13] Bio-diatomite dynamic membrane reactor filtration combines dynamic membrane technology for wastewater treatment, and microbial colonies that form diatomite particles to purify water.[14] These methods are under development in China as part of addressing the country's pollution problems.

Turbidity

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Turbid water

Turbidity is how murky or hazy water seems due to suspended particles. The more suspended particles, the higher the turbidity. Turbidity is used to visually measure water quality, being most common in unfiltered raw water.[15] High amounts of turbidity in raw water can occur due to:[15]

• Increased flow due to heavy rain fall
• Spring turnover of water masses
• Bank erosion
• Sediment resuspension in shallow areas
• Temporary increase from the more turbid areas

Turbidity and health concerns

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During high turbidity peaks, pathogens are more commonly found in raw water. This can contribute to the spread of illnesses.[16] When turbidity increases, reported hospital visits for the elderly (65+) with gastrointestinal illnesses also increase. Even places with water filtration systems that meet standards can have an endemic of gastrointestinal illness, or waterborne infectious diseases. Those hospitalized represent a small percentage of total morbidity caused by these illnesses.[9]

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Controlling turbidity

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Controlling the land surrounding raw water reservoirs and other sources is key to reducing turbidity. Areas of high sediment resuspension and erosion need attending regularly, and screens and other devices are needed to catch suspended particles. Screens that trap particles and debris must be cleaned consistently. Flushing out water pumps should be done when demand is lowest. This gives time for the water to settle, and decrease turbidity before is it needed in high amounts. "Turbidity reduction is best achieved when the water is run through a series of chemical and physical treatment methods before reaching the filter".[17]

Waterside of Saint Lawrence River near Kamouraska

Raw water dieting

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Around , untreated spring water, described as "naturally probiotic" raw water, became a commercial product distributed through health food shops, but experts have raised public health concerns about the possible occurrence of harmful bacteria, viruses, and parasites such as Giardia. The products are associated with a fad diet of "raw water fasting",[18][19] reportedly finding purchase among the "health-conscious elite" of Silicon Valley, including figures such as the raw vegan founder of Juicero Doug Evens.[20][21] One doctor compared the movement's rejection of established science to the anti-vaccination movement.[22] One raw water business in the United States has even claimed that methods used by bottled and spring water producers could change the molecular structure of water.[23][24]

The fad was mocked on The Daily Show in April in a segment that included an interview with Marion Nestle.[25][26]

See also

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References

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Additional sources

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A Ceramic Filter is a mechanical filtration device made of clay that traps particles and micro- organisms within the ceramic element, which can be a pot, candle or disc. Ceramic Filters typically consist of two parts, the top containing raw water together with the ceramic element, and the bottom containing the filtered water and a tap. Ceramic Filters can also be plumbed directly into a pressurised water pipe.

Ceramic Filters have micron-sized pores that filter suspended particles and pathogenic microorganisms through mechanical trapping and adsorption, and the quality of the filter elements is essential for this process. Ceramic Filters usually do not remove viruses. Colloidal silver is sometimes used in Ceramic Filters to protect against recontamination, though its performance is doubted, with several studies showing limited to no effects. Some filters also contain activated carbon to remove organics or heavy metals. Ceramic Filters remove some iron and taste and improve the smell and colour of water.

Design Considerations

There are three types of filter designs. In pot filters, ceramic pots are placed in a bucket with a tap. The ceramic pot is filled with water, which drips through to a second container. In ceramic candle or disk filters, two containers are placed on top of each other. A hole is drilled in the bottom of the upper container, and a ceramic candle is screwed in. To increase the flow rate, multiple candles can be used. Water is gravity filtered through the candle and collects into the lower safe storage container, where it can be released with a tap. In ceramic syphon filters, the filter elements are placed into a bucket on a table, and an attached long tube hangs out of the bucket by 30&#;100 cm. To start operation, the filter tube needs to be filled with water, sometimes via an integrated rubber bulb. Water can be collected directly from the tube or in another Safe Water Storage container. Ceramic Filters operated by gravity usually have a flow rate of 1&#;3 L/hour per filter, depending on the quality of the ceramic element, its surface area and age as well as hydrostatic pressure difference. Storage capacity of the clean water tank is about 10&#;15 L.

Materials

Ceramic pot filters can be produced with locally available material in a specially designed workshop, though differences in clay composition across geographic regions can cause quality problems. Holes also need to be drilled in local containers to attach the candles and taps. Conversely, candle filters are usually imported, and pre-drilled containers are often supplied by the manufacturer together with the candle. Filters prepared in gasfired ovens are often of better quality than those prepared in wood-fired ovens, as the right temperature for the firing process can be better maintained in gas ovens. Regardless, good quality control procedures and training are essential to achieve high quality products. Ceramic Filters can be stacked for storage but still require a relatively large storage place, which might not be available. Ceramic Filter elements are fragile and can be damaged during transport.

Applicability

Ceramic Filters can be useful in all emergency phases. Household water filters can be distributed in the acute phase, when water is generally available but is contaminated with bacteria, protozoa or macro-organisms or there is a risk of contamination of water during transport and storage at home. Like other household water treatment systems, Ceramic Filters are especially applicable when the population is dispersed such that the installation of large-scale water treatment systems is not feasible. Ceramic Filters efficiently reduce the turbidity of water, but a high content of particles and organic matter will lead to clogging and the need for more frequent cleaning, which in turn will reduce the lifespan of the ceramic element. The turbidity of raw water should not exceed 25 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) on a long-term scale, or 50 NTU when the periods of elevated turbidity are short.

The measure of relative clarity of a liquid, usually expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

Operation and Maintenance

Ceramic Filters are very simple, and daily operation is limited to filling the containers with water. Maintenance includes scrubbing with a soft brush or cloth, which should be done frequently if turbid water is used. Chlorine or soap should not be used to clean the ceramic elements but can be used for lids, clean water storage containers and the tap. Pouring boiling water over the candles has shown be an effective cleaning method in some studies. With more frequent cleaning, the thickness of ceramic candles and pots decreases and therefore the removal efficiency might reduce over time. One challenge for the user is therefore to know when to replace the candle. To overcome this, some manufacturers include a simple gauge to measure the thickness of the candle and to know when a change is required. With very turbid water generating high levels of clogging and frequent cleaning, pre-settling of the water may extend the life of the Ceramic Filter elements.

Health and Safety

The efficiency of Ceramic Filters in removing pathogens varies depending on the type, production conditions and quality of the ceramic element. In general, it varies from 88&#;99.99 % for faecal-indicator microorganisms and protozoa depending on the study, product used and context. Removal efficiencies for viruses are also highly variable, with some studies and products showing 90&#;99% removal of viruses, and other products showing no or almost no viral removal. It is crucial to ensure that the Ceramic Filter elements are fixed correctly to avoid leakage and recontamination. The treated water storage container and tap may be recontaminated. The risk of recontamination is higher when no Safe Water Storage container H.1 is provided, as is the case for some syphon filters.

Costs

Ceramic pot and syphon filters usually cost around 8&#;30 USD. The costs for the ceramic candle filters are > 30 USD depending on the manufacturer, quality and housing type. The life span of Ceramic Filter elements is usually around 6&#;12 months but varies depending on the raw water quality and cleaning frequency.

Social and Environmental Considerations

Ceramic pot or candle filters are well accepted in most contexts. The removal of turbidity makes water treatment visible and easy to understand, and filters are easy to use. Users who have never seen a filter before might experience difficulties in installation and maintenance, so one or several follow up trainings may be required.

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